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Egyptian wooden model of beer making in ancient Egypt, Beer is one of the world's oldest prepared beverages. There is some evidence that beer was produced at during the (PPN). (The PPN is lasted from around 8500 BC to 5500 BC.) The earliest clear chemical evidence of beer dates to about 3500–3100 BC, from the site of in the of western. It is possible, but not proven, that it dates back even further; to about 10,000 BC, when cereal was first. Beer is recorded in the written history of and, and archaeologists speculate that beer was instrumental in the formation of civilizations. Approximately 5000 years ago, workers in the city of (modern day Iraq) were paid by their employers in beer. During the building of the, each worker got a daily ration of four to five litres of beer, which served as both nutrition and refreshment that was crucial to the pyramids' construction.
Some of the earliest Sumerian writings contain references to beer; examples include a prayer to the goddess, known as 'The Hymn to Ninkasi', which served as both a prayer as well as a method of remembering the recipe for beer in a culture with few literate people, and the ancient advice ( Fill your belly. Day and night make merry) to, recorded in the, by the ale-wife may, at least in part, have referred to the consumption of beer. The, discovered in 1974 in, show that beer was produced in the city in 2500 BC. A fermented beverage using rice and fruit was made in China around 7000 BC. Unlike, mold was not used to saccharify the rice (amylolytic fermentation); the rice was probably prepared for fermentation.
Almost any substance containing sugar can naturally undergo alcoholic fermentation. It is likely that many cultures, on observing that a sweet liquid could be obtained from a source of starch, independently invented beer. Bread and beer increased prosperity to a level that allowed time for development of other technologies and contributed to the building of civilizations. Noted that during his travels, beer was being produced in. Beer was spread through Europe by and tribes as far back as 3000 BC, and it was mainly brewed on a domestic scale. The product that the early Europeans drank might not be recognised as beer by most people today. Alongside the basic starch source, the early European beers might contain fruits, honey, numerous types of plants, spices and other substances such as herbs.
What they did not contain was, as that was a later addition, first mentioned in Europe around 822 by a Carolingian Abbot and again in 1067 by Abbess. In 1516, Duke of Bavaria, adopted the (purity law), perhaps the oldest food-quality regulation still in use in the 21st century, according to which the only allowed ingredients of beer are water, and barley. Beer produced before the continued to be made and sold on a domestic scale, although by the 7th century AD, beer was also being produced and sold by European. During the Industrial Revolution, the production of beer moved from manufacture to, and domestic manufacture ceased to be significant by the end of the 19th century. The development of and changed brewing by allowing the brewer more control of the process and greater knowledge of the results. As of 2007, the brewing industry is a global business, consisting of several dominant multinational companies and many thousands of smaller producers ranging from to.
As of 2006, more than 133 billion litres (35 billion gallons), the equivalent of a cube 510 metres on a side, of beer are sold per year, producing total global revenues of $294.5 billion (£147.7 billion). In 2010, China's beer consumption hit 450 million hectolitres (45 billion litres), or nearly twice that of the United States, but only 5 per cent sold were premium draught beers, compared with 50 per cent in France and Germany.
A 16th-century brewery The process of making beer is known as brewing. A dedicated building for the making of beer is called a brewery, though beer can be made in the home and has been for much of its history. A company that makes beer is called either a brewery or a. Beer made on a domestic scale for non-commercial reasons is classified as regardless of where it is made, though most homebrewed beer is made in the home. Brewing beer is subject to legislation and taxation in, which from the late 19th century largely restricted brewing to a commercial operation only. However, the UK government relaxed legislation in 1963, followed by Australia in 1972 and the US in 1978, allowing homebrewing to become a popular hobby. The purpose of brewing is to convert the starch source into a sugary liquid called and to convert the wort into the alcoholic beverage known as beer in a fermentation process effected.
The first step, where the wort is prepared by mixing the starch source (normally malted barley) with hot water, is known as '. Hot water (known as 'liquor' in brewing terms) is mixed with crushed malt or malts (known as ') in a.
The mashing process takes around 1 to 2 hours, during which the starches are converted to sugars, and then the sweet wort is drained off the grains. The grains are now washed in a process known as 'sparging'.
This washing allows the brewer to gather as much of the fermentable liquid from the grains as possible. The process of filtering the spent grain from the wort and sparge water is called wort separation. The traditional process for wort separation is, in which the grain bed itself serves as the filter medium.
Some modern breweries prefer the use of filter frames which allow a more finely ground grist. Most modern breweries use a continuous sparge, collecting the original wort and the sparge water together. However, it is possible to collect a second or even third wash with the not quite spent grains as separate batches. Each run would produce a weaker wort and thus a weaker beer. This process is known as second (and third) runnings. Brewing with several runnings is called parti gyle brewing.
The sweet wort collected from sparging is put into a kettle, or 'copper' (so called because these vessels were traditionally made from copper), and boiled, usually for about one hour. During boiling, water in the wort evaporates, but the sugars and other components of the wort remain; this allows more efficient use of the starch sources in the beer. Boiling also destroys any remaining enzymes left over from the mashing stage. Are added during boiling as a source of bitterness, flavour and aroma.
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Hops may be added at more than one point during the boil. The longer the hops are boiled, the more bitterness they contribute, but the less hop flavour and aroma remains in the beer. After boiling, the hopped wort is now cooled, ready for the yeast. In some breweries, the hopped wort may pass through a hopback, which is a small vat filled with hops, to add aromatic hop flavouring and to act as a filter; but usually the hopped wort is simply cooled for the fermenter, where the yeast is added. During fermentation, the wort becomes beer in a process which requires a week to months depending on the type of yeast and strength of the beer. In addition to producing, fine suspended in the wort settles during fermentation. Once fermentation is complete, the yeast also settles, leaving the beer clear.
Fermentation is sometimes carried out in two stages, primary and secondary. Once most of the alcohol has been produced during primary fermentation, the beer is transferred to a new vessel and allowed a period of. Secondary fermentation is used when the beer requires long storage before packaging or greater clarity. When the beer has fermented, it is either into casks for or kegs, or bottles for other sorts of beer. Before roasting The basic ingredients of beer are water; a starch source, such as, able to be saccharified (converted to sugars) then fermented (converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide); a to produce the fermentation; and a flavouring such as.
A mixture of starch sources may be used, with a secondary starch source, such as maize (corn), rice or sugar, often being termed an, especially when used as a lower-cost substitute for malted barley. Less widely used starch sources include, and root in Africa, and potato in Brazil, and in Mexico, among others. The amount of each starch source in a beer recipe is collectively called the. Is the main ingredient of beer, accounting for 93% of its weight. Though water itself is, ideally, flavorless, its level of dissolved minerals, specifically, bicarbonate ion, does influence beer's finished taste.
Due to the properties of each 's water, specific areas were originally the sole producers of certain types of beer, each identifiable by regional characteristics. Regional accords that 's is well-suited to making, such as, while the 's soft water is ideal for brewing , such as. The waters of in England contain, which benefits making to such a degree that brewers of pale ales will add gypsum to the local water in a process known as.
The starch source, termed as the ', in a beer provides the fermentable material and is a key determinant of the strength and flavour of the beer. The most common starch source used in beer is malted grain. Grain is malted by soaking it in water, allowing it to begin, and then drying the partially germinated grain in a kiln. Malting grain produces enzymes that convert starches in the grain into fermentable sugars. Different roasting times and temperatures are used to produce different colours of malt from the same grain. Darker malts will produce darker beers.
Nearly all beer includes barley malt as the majority of the starch. This is because its fibrous hull remains attached to the grain during threshing. After malting, barley is milled, which finally removes the hull, breaking it into large pieces. These pieces remain with the grain during the, and act as a filter bed during, when sweet is separated from insoluble grain material. Other malted and unmalted grains (including wheat, rice, and, and less frequently, corn and sorghum) may be used. Some brewers have produced, made with sorghum with no barley malt, for those who cannot consume -containing grains like wheat, barley, and rye. In a, Germany, hop yard Flavouring beer is the sole major commercial use of.
The flower of the is used as a flavouring and preservative agent in nearly all beer made today. The flowers themselves are often called 'hops'. The first historical mention of the use of hops in beer was from 822 AD in monastery rules written by Adalhard the Elder, also known as, though the date normally given for widespread cultivation of hops for use in beer is the thirteenth century. Before the thirteenth century, and until the sixteenth century, during which hops took over as the dominant flavouring, beer was flavoured with other plants; for instance,. Combinations of various aromatic herbs, berries, and even ingredients like would be combined into a mixture known as and used as hops are now used.
Some beers today, such as Fraoch' by the Scottish Heather Ales company and Cervoise Lancelot by the French Brasserie-Lancelot company, use plants other than hops for flavouring. Hops contain several characteristics that brewers desire in beer. Hops contribute a bitterness that balances the sweetness of the malt; the bitterness of beers is measured on the. Hops contribute floral, citrus, and herbal aromas and flavours to beer.
Hops have an effect that favours the activity of brewer's yeast over less desirable microorganisms and aids in ' retention', the length of time that a foamy head created by carbonation will last. The acidity of hops is a preservative. Yeast is the that is responsible for fermentation in beer. Yeast the sugars extracted from grains, which produces and, and thereby turns into beer. In addition to fermenting the beer, yeast influences the character and flavour.
The dominant types of yeast used to make beer are the and. Ferments, and ferments Bavarian. Before the role of yeast in fermentation was understood, fermentation involved wild or airborne yeasts. A few styles such as rely on this method today, but most modern fermentation adds pure yeast. Some brewers add one or more clarifying agents or to beer, which typically (collect as a solid) out of the beer along with protein solids and are found only in trace amounts in the finished product.
This process makes the beer appear and clean, rather than the cloudy appearance of ethnic and older styles of beer such as. Examples of clarifying agents include, obtained from of fish;, a seaweed; kappa, from the seaweed; (artificial); and. If a beer is marked 'suitable for vegans', it was clarified either with seaweed or with artificial agents. Brewing industry. Cask ale with pump clips detailing the beers and their breweries While there are many types of beer brewed, the basics of brewing beer are shared across national and cultural boundaries. The traditional European brewing regions—, and the —have local varieties of beer.
English writer, in his 1977 book The World Guide To Beer, categorised beers from around the world in local style groups suggested by local customs and names. Furthered Jackson's work in The Essentials of Beer Style in 1989. Top-fermented beers are most commonly produced with, a which and rises to the surface, typically between 15 and 25 °C (59 and 77 °F).
At these temperatures, yeast produces significant amounts of and other secondary flavour and aroma products, and the result is often a beer with slightly 'fruity' compounds resembling apple, pear, pineapple, plum, or prune, among others. After the introduction of hops into England from Flanders in the 15th century, 'ale' referred to an unhopped fermented beverage, 'beer' being used to describe a brew with an infusion of hops. Is the term coined by the (CAMRA) in 1973 for 'beer brewed from traditional ingredients, matured by in the container from which it is dispensed, and served without the use of '. It is applied to and beers. Is a beer which uses a top-fermenting yeast and predominantly pale malt. It is one of the world's major beer styles. And porter are dark beers made using roasted malts or roast barley, and typically brewed with slow fermenting yeast.
There are a number of variations including Baltic porter, dry stout, and Imperial stout. The name 'porter' was first used in 1721 to describe a dark brown beer popular with the street and river of London. This same beer later also became known as stout, though the word stout had been used as early as 1677. The history and development of stout and porter are intertwined. Has a predominantly malty palate. It is usually dark coloured with an of 3% to 3.6%, although there are lighter hued milds as well as stronger examples reaching 6% abv and higher.
Is brewed with a large proportion of wheat although it often also contains a significant proportion of. Wheat beers are usually (in Germany they have to be by law). The flavour of wheat beers varies considerably, depending upon the specific style. A variety of beer brewed with cherries, a beer of, is naturally fermented using wild yeasts, rather than cultivated. Many of these are not strains of brewer's yeast ( Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and may have significant differences in aroma and sourness. Yeast varieties such as and are common in lambics.
In addition, other organisms such as bacteria produce acids which contribute to the sourness. Is cool fermented beer. Are the most commonly consumed beers in the world. The name 'lager' comes from the German 'lagern' for 'to store', as brewers around Bavaria stored beer in cool cellars and caves during the warm summer months. These brewers noticed that the beers continued to ferment, and to also clear of sediment, when stored in cool conditions.
Lager yeast is a cool bottom-fermenting yeast ( ) and typically undergoes primary fermentation at 7–12 °C (45–54 °F) (the fermentation phase), and then is given a long secondary fermentation at 0–4 °C (32–39 °F) (the lagering phase). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of and other byproducts, resulting in a 'cleaner'-tasting beer. Modern methods of producing lager were pioneered by Gabriel Sedlmayr the Younger, who perfected dark brown lagers at the in Bavaria, and, who began brewing a lager (now known as ), probably of amber-red colour, in in 1840–1841. With improved modern yeast strains, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically 1–3 weeks.
Paulaner – a dark lager Beer colour is determined by the malt. The most common colour is a pale amber produced from using pale malts. Pale lager and pale ale are terms used for beers made from malt dried with the fuel. Coke was first used for roasting malt in 1642, but it was not until around 1703 that the term pale ale was used. In terms of sales volume, most of today's beer is based on the pale lager brewed in 1842 in the town of in the present-day.
The modern pale lager is light in colour with a noticeable carbonation (fizzy bubbles) and a typical content of around 5%. The, and brands of beer are typical examples of pale lager, as are the American brands, and. Dark beers are usually brewed from a pale malt or lager malt base with a small proportion of darker malt added to achieve the desired shade. Other colourants—such as caramel—are also widely used to darken beers. Very dark beers, such as, use dark or patent malts that have been roasted longer. Some have roasted unmalted barley.
A selection of Draught beer from a pressurised using a lever-style dispenser and a spout is the most common method of dispensing in bars around the world. A metal keg is pressurised with (CO 2) gas which drives the beer to the dispensing or faucet.
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Some beers may be served with a nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixture. Produces fine bubbles, resulting in a dense and a creamy. Some types of beer can also be found in smaller, disposable kegs called. In traditional pubs, the pull levers for major beer brands may include the beer's logo and trademark. In the 1980s, Guinness introduced the, a nitrogen-pressurised ball inside a can which creates a dense, tight head, similar to beer served from a nitrogen system. The words draft and draught can be used as marketing terms to describe canned or beers containing a beer widget, or which are cold-filtered rather than pasteurised.
Cask-conditioned ales (or cask ales) are unfiltered and unpasteurised beers. These beers are termed ' by the organisation.
Typically, when a cask arrives in a pub, it is placed horizontally on a frame called a ' which is designed to hold it steady and at the right angle, and then allowed to cool to cellar temperature (typically between 11–13 °C or 52–55 °F), before being tapped and vented—a tap is driven through a (usually rubber) bung at the bottom of one end, and a hard or other implement is used to open a hole in the side of the cask, which is now uppermost. The act of stillaging and then venting a beer in this manner typically disturbs all the sediment, so it must be left for a suitable period to 'drop' (clear) again, as well as to fully — this period can take anywhere from several hours to several days. At this point the beer is ready to sell, either being pulled through a beer line with a hand pump, or simply being 'gravity-fed' directly into the glass. Draught beer's environmental impact can be 68% lower than bottled beer due to packaging differences.
A life cycle study of one beer brand, including grain production, brewing, bottling, distribution and waste management, shows that the CO 2 emissions from a 6-pack of micro-brew beer is about 3 kilograms (6.6 pounds). The loss of natural habitat potential from the 6-pack of micro-brew beer is estimated to be 2.5 square metres (26 square feet).
Downstream emissions from distribution, retail, storage and disposal of waste can be over 45% of a bottled micro-brew beer's CO 2 emissions. Where legal, the use of a refillable jug, reusable bottle or other reusable containers to transport draught beer from a store or a bar, rather than buying pre-bottled beer, can reduce the environmental impact of beer consumption. Assortment of beer bottles Most beers are cleared of yeast by when packaged in bottles and cans. However, beers retain some yeast—either by being unfiltered, or by being filtered and then reseeded with fresh yeast.
It is usually recommended that the beer be poured slowly, leaving any yeast sediment at the bottom of the bottle. However, some drinkers prefer to pour in the yeast; this practice is customary with. Typically, when serving a hefeweizen wheat beer, 90% of the contents are poured, and the remainder is swirled to suspend the sediment before pouring it into the glass. Alternatively, the bottle may be inverted prior to opening. Glass bottles are always used for bottle conditioned beers. Many beers are sold in cans, though there is considerable variation in the proportion between different countries.
In Sweden in 2001, 63.9% of beer was sold in cans. People either drink from the can or pour the beer into a glass. A technology developed by for the 2010 is the 'full aperture' can, so named because the entire lid is removed during the opening process, turning the can into a drinking cup.
Cans protect the beer from light (thereby preventing beer) and have a seal less prone to leaking over time than bottles. Cans were initially viewed as a technological breakthrough for maintaining the quality of a beer, then became commonly associated with less expensive, mass-produced beers, even though the quality of storage in cans is much like bottles. Plastic bottles are used by some breweries. Temperature The temperature of a beer has an influence on a drinker's experience; warmer temperatures reveal the range of flavours in a beer but cooler temperatures are more refreshing.
Most drinkers prefer to be served chilled, a low- or medium-strength to be served cool, while a strong or to be served at room temperature. Beer writer proposed a five-level scale for serving temperatures: well chilled (7 °C or 45 °F) for 'light' beers (pale lagers); chilled (8 °C or 46 °F) for and other wheat beers; lightly chilled (9 °C or 48 °F) for all dark lagers, and German wheat beers; cellar temperature (13 °C or 55 °F) for regular British, and most; and room temperature (15.5 °C or 60 °F) for strong dark ales (especially ) and. Drinking chilled beer began with the development of artificial and by the 1870s, was spread in those countries that concentrated on brewing pale lager. Chilling beer makes it more refreshing, though below 15.5 °C the chilling starts to reduce taste awareness and reduces it significantly below 10 °C (50 °F). Beer served unchilled—either cool or at room temperature—reveal more of their flavours., a non-profit UK beer organisation, has set a temperature standard range of 12°–14 °C (53°–57 °F) for cask ales to be served.
Main article: Beer is consumed out of a variety of vessels, such as a glass, a, a mug, a, a beer bottle or a can; or at and some bars and nightclubs, from a plastic cup. The shape of the glass from which beer is consumed can influence the perception of the beer and can define and accent the character of the style. Breweries offer branded glassware intended only for their own beers as a marketing promotion, as this increases sales of their product. The pouring process has an influence on a beer's presentation.
The rate of flow from the or other serving vessel, tilt of the glass, and position of the pour (in the centre or down the side) into the glass all influence the end result, such as the size and longevity of the head, lacing (the pattern left by the head as it moves down the glass as the beer is drunk), and the release of. A is a beer dispensing device, usually found in bars and pubs, that consists of a cylinder attached to a beer cooling device at the bottom. Beer is dispensed from the beer tower into a drinking vessel. Health effects.
See also: and Beer contains, an, which has short and long-term effects on the user when consumed. Different concentrations of alcohol in the human body have different effects on a person. The effects of alcohol depend on the amount an individual has drunk, the percentage of alcohol in the beer and the timespan over which the consumption took place, the amount of food eaten and whether an individual has taken other prescription, over-the-counter or, among other factors. Drinking enough to cause a (BAC) of 0.03%–0.12% typically causes an overall improvement in mood and possible, increased self-confidence and sociability, decreased anxiety, a and impaired judgement and fine muscle coordination.
A BAC of 0.09% to 0.25% causes, balance problems and blurred vision. A BAC from 0.18% to 0.30% causes profound confusion, impaired speech (e.g., slurred speech), staggering, dizziness and vomiting. A BAC from 0.25% to 0.40% causes, unconsciousness, vomiting (death may occur due to inhalation of vomit while unconscious) and (potentially life-threatening). A BAC from 0.35% to 0.80% causes a (unconsciousness), life-threatening respiratory depression and possibly fatal. As with all alcoholic drinks, operating an aircraft or heavy machinery increases the risk of an accident; many countries have severe criminal penalties against drunk driving. Consumption of small quantities of alcohol (less than one drink in women and two in men) is associated with a decreased risk of, and.
The of continuous, moderate or heavy alcohol consumption include the risk of developing and., also known as 'alcohol use disorder', is a broad term for any drinking of that results in problems. It was previously divided into two types: and. In a medical context, alcoholism is said to exist when two or more of the following conditions is present: a person drinks large amounts over a long time period, has difficulty cutting down, acquiring and drinking alcohol takes up a great deal of time, alcohol is strongly desired, usage results in not fulfilling responsibilities, usage results in social problems, usage results in health problems, usage results in risky situations, occurs when stopping, and has occurred with use.
Alcoholism reduces a person's life expectancy by around ten years and alcohol use is the third leading cause of early death in the United States. No professional medical association recommends that people who are nondrinkers should start drinking wine. A total of 3.3 million deaths (5.9% of all deaths) are believed to be due to alcohol. It is considered that overeating and lack of muscle tone is the main cause of a, rather than beer consumption. A 2004 study, however, found a link between and a beer belly. But with most overconsumption, it is more a problem of improper exercise and overconsumption of carbohydrates than the product itself.
Several diet books quote beer as having an undesirably high of 110, the same as; however, the maltose in beer undergoes by yeast during fermentation so that beer consists mostly of water, hop oils and only trace amounts of sugars, including maltose. Beers vary in their nutritional content. The ingredients used to make beer, including the, provide a rich source of nutrients; therefore beer may contain traceable amounts of nutrients, including, and.
Beer is sometimes referred to as 'liquid ', though beer is not a meal in itself. Society and culture. A tent at Munich's —the world's largest beer festival In many societies, beer is the most popular alcoholic drink. Various social traditions and activities are associated with beer drinking, such as playing cards, darts, or other pub games; attending; engaging in zythology (the study of beer); visiting a in one evening; visiting breweries; beer-oriented tourism; or., such as, are also popular. A relatively new profession is that of the, who informs restaurant patrons about beers and food pairings. Beer is considered to be a social lubricant in many societies and is all over the world. There are breweries in Middle Eastern countries such as, and in some.
Sales of beer are four times those of wine, which is the second most popular alcoholic drink. A study published in the Neuropsychopharmacology journal in 2013 revealed the finding that the of beer alone could provoke activity in the brain of the male participants, who wanted to drink more as a result. The 49 men in the study were subject to scans, while a computer-controlled device sprayed minute amounts of beer, water and a onto their tongues.
Compared with the taste of the sports drink, the taste of beer significantly increased the participants desire to drink. Test results indicated that the flavour of the beer triggered a release, even though alcohol content in the spray was insufficient for the purpose of becoming intoxicated. Some breweries have developed beers to. Wine writer disputed the need to pair beer with food, while beer writers Roger Protz and Melissa Cole contested that claim. Related drinks. See also: Around the world, there are many traditional and ancient starch-based drinks classed as beer.
In Africa, there are various ethnic beers made from or, such as in Namibia and in Ethiopia. Also has a beer made from millet; it is a low alcohol, somewhat porridge-like drink called 'Bozo'., Nepal, and also use millet in, a popular semi-fermented rice/millet drink in the eastern. Further east in China are found and —traditional rice-based beverages related to beer. The in South America has, made from germinated maize (corn); while the have, a traditional beverage made since pre-Columbian times by chewing so that an enzyme present in human saliva can break down the starch into fermentable sugars; this is similar to Masato in. Some beers which are made from bread, which is linked to the earliest forms of beer, are in Finland, in Russia and, and in Sudan. Main article: Beer contains the phenolic acids, and.
Experiments show that most of the phenolic acids are present as bound forms and only a small portion can be detected as free compounds., and beer made with it, contain which is a potent. Hop also contains, tannins and. The alcohol is a component of hops brewing. Barley, in the form of malt, brings the condensed, and into beer., and are aromatic higher alcohols found in beer as secondary products of (products also known as ). Alexander, Jeffrey W. Brewed in Japan: The Evolution of the Japanese Beer Industry (University of British Columbia Press; 2013) 316 pages.
Dumper, Michael; Stanley, Bruce E. Protz, Roger. The Complete Guide to World Beer.
The Barbarian's Beverage: A History of Beer in Ancient Europe, Max Nelson. The World Guide to Beer, Michael Jackson. The New World Guide to Beer, Michael Jackson. Beer: The Story of the Pint, Martyn Cornell. Beer and Britannia: An Inebriated History of Britain, Peter Haydon.
The Book of Beer Knowledge: Essential Wisdom for the Discerning Drinker, a Useful Miscellany, Jeff Evans. Country House Brewing in England, 1500–1900, Pamela Sambrook. Ale, Beer and Brewsters in England: Women's Work in a Changing World, 1300–1600, Judith M. A History of Beer and Brewing, I. Beer: an Illustrated History, Brian Glover.
Beer in America: The Early Years 1587–1840—Beer's Role in the Settling of America and the Birth of a Nation, Gregg Smith. Big Book of Beer, Adrian Tierney-Jones.
Gone for a Burton: Memories from a Great British Heritage, Bob Ricketts. Farmhouse Ales: Culture and Craftsmanship in the Belgian Tradition, Phil Marowski. The World Encyclopedia of Beer, Brian Glover.
The Complete Joy of Homebrewing, Charlie Papazian. The Brewmaster's Table, Garrett Oliver. Vaughan, J. Geissler (1997). The New Oxford Book of Food Plants. Bacchus and Civic Order: The Culture of Drink in Early Modern Germany, Ann Tlusty. Further reading.
Boulton, Christopher (Original Author) (August 2013). Encyclopaedia of Brewing. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell. Pp. 716 pages. Colicchio, Tom (Foreword) (October 2011). 'The Oxford Companion to Beer'. Oxford Companion To.
(Hardcover) (1 ed.). Rhodes, Christine P.; Lappies, Pamela B., eds. (October 1997). The Encyclopedia of Beer (Paperback) (Reprint ed.).
New York, NY:. Webb, Tim; Beaumont, Stephen (October 2012). The World Atlas of Beer: The Essential Guide to the Beers of the World (Hardcover).
New York, NY: Sterling Epicure. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to. Quotations related to at Wikiquote.